The Evolution of Apprenticeship in the UK

1. Introduction

The 25-year span between the late 1960s and early 1990s has been a period of great change in the realm of employment and training policy within the UK. For many years, it has been noted that for a variety of reasons, the UK has suffered from a range of skill shortages and gaps, which has exacerbated various other economic problems, the main one being high unemployment. The latter part of the 1980s saw a range of state-sponsored training schemes aimed at solving this problem. In particular, the Youth Training Scheme (YTS) has become synonymous with the Thatcher era and its underlying neo-liberal economic and social policies. YTS, along with many other ad hoc training schemes, provided training and a small wage to various young people. However, the training provided was often of little quality and the skills gained were limited. There was no real long-term commitment to these trainees, and employers often used the low wages offered to substitute employing a trainee instead of it being a supplement to the cost.The years that followed saw a great deal of investment in education and the recognition that increasing amounts of young people were entering into further and higher education. At the same time, there was an increasing realization that many young people are not suited to an academic route and would benefit from vocational training. This period in history marks the beginning of an ever-evolving apprenticeship system to the one we roughly have today.

1.1 Historical Background

As the Middle Ages progressed, the practices surrounding apprenticeship would be formalized through legislation and the craft guilds. This was marked by an agreement of a contract between a master and an apprentice. The contract would bind the youth to serve a set number of years working on his trade in return for board, lodging, and instruction. This contract would also have various stipulations binding the master to carry out his role and provide the necessary teaching and instruction. The contract would prove and guarantee to the parent that their child was serious about learning the trade and would be better off than if he had just learned it undirected within the family or community setting. During the term of the contract, the apprentice was not a "free man" and was actually under the jurisdiction and protection of the master and guild. This means that a youth not only learned a craft but would more often than not adopt a specific way of life. This would include dress, diet, speech, and other customs that were characteristic of the trade and guild. At the end of the contract (usually from the age of 21 onwards), the newly learned craftsman would become a master of the craft and could indenture lads of his own.

Asking someone to learn a trade by "reading and writing" was pointless because the concepts of reading and writing were not applied to the crafts practised. The basic skills could only be learned by imitation and practice. The traditional trades were a "way of life" for many people. This would often start at a young age when the aspiring apprentice would be shown and taught informally within the family setting. If the craft was practised in a wider community setting, the apprentice would pick up the skills from older workers in a variety of places. The new skills would be learned over the years, and in many traditions, the learning would never be complete as they would continue to learn and perfect their skills for the rest of their working life.

1.2 Importance of Apprenticeship Programmes

Similarly, Germany has implemented a highly successful apprenticeship program based on the dual education system. This is a structured program for the preparation of qualified specialists. It combines company-based vocational education and training on the one hand and a school-based element on the other. Today, about 80% of young Germans take part in vocational training through this dual system. It has proved successful in skill formation, meeting the needs of the industry. The German system has been quite resilient and still continues to thrive despite any adverse economic conditions, fluctuations, and changing policies. Apprenticeship has offered the youth a secure future and paved a path for career progression. The system is proven to be cost-effective for the industry and the state, considering its contribution to public finance through taxes and social security contributions.

The importance of apprenticeship programs was recognised even before the medieval period. It is said that Seihi, a Persian philosopher, was well aware of the importance of learning by doing and exposure to real-life situations in skill formation. In the modern era, countries all over the world are relying on apprenticeship training to develop a skilled and educated workforce. Developed countries have been successful in developing highly skilled human resources in diverse sectors like healthcare, manufacturing, energy, IT, building and construction, and other service sectors. This has been achieved by creating a partnership between industry and government through apprenticeship programs. In the United States, it has been realised that apprenticeship programs reduce skill shortages, provide opportunities to youth, and serve as a productive investment in the future of the workforce and the nation's economy.

2. Challenges Faced by Apprenticeships

2.1 Perception and Stigma

Perception of apprenticeships is one of the main reasons behind the dwindling vocational choices of young people in the UK. The lack of understanding and general stereotyping towards apprenticeships has led modern apprenticeship frameworks to develop, and has created many barriers upon the potential apprentices' well-being. The concept of apprenticeship being for people who fail academically or those who come from lower socio-economic backgrounds is a major concept in the UK youth population and this distorted perception is what makes young people avoid vocational options. The idea that apprenticeships are a last resort option has been stemmed from the demise of traditional apprenticeships and the developing framework of modern apprenticeships. The government has placed a strong emphasis on increasing the numbers of apprentices with learning difficulties and disabilities and has also widened the participation of apprenticeships by people from ethnic minorities, under-represented groups, and women, through positive action measures. This shows that societal stereotypes have caused blockades for many groups of people and has caused the modern frameworks to cater to a more inclusive audience. Stigma is a major barrier to those interested in apprenticeships, but it is the deeply ingrained negative connotations attached to it that have been the factor in many cases of discrimination. In 2012, The Department of Business, Innovation and Skills undertook a study exploring discrimination within apprenticeships. This research showed that in various instances, people from different demographic groups were discouraged from continuing with their apprenticeship by either their learning provider, careers advisor, or potential employer. Some ethnic minority groups had experienced prejudice from their employer, which resulted in a very low success rate for completing an apprenticeship. In similar instances, women and those with learning difficulties or disabilities had been pushed into sectors that were not their choice as the employer held preset beliefs that all apprentices from said demographic should not or could not do the job they desired. It also showed that people who were unemployed and on benefits were often the target of 'bad quality' apprenticeships and were easy victims to exploitation due to the sheer want of employment.

2.2 Lack of Awareness and Information

The perception that apprenticeships are for individuals who are not academically able is changing, however it is still recognised as one of the main causes for the lack of awareness and knowledge about apprenticeships. This has led to a lack of understanding about what apprenticeships involve and the opportunities they offer in terms of career progression. Young people and their parents, as well as adults, teachers and careers advisers have limited understanding of apprenticeships. This is a particular issue for higher and advanced level apprenticeships which are not seen as a credible alternative to staying on in education. According to the SSDA National Centre for Vocational Education Research, many students are confused about what apprenticeships offer, as opposed to jobs with training. Apprenticeships in the past were seen as an obvious route into a job in a specific industry, however with the advance of other vocational options and the development of higher education, many school leavers are not sure what path to take to get into the career they are aiming for. There are few opportunities to learn about apprenticeships in school, and when there are careers talks from training providers, these are often aimed at those who have failed academically and are not considering staying on in 6th form.

2.3 Funding and Financial Support

Key to the government's strategy has been ensuring income for apprentices, the vast majority of whom are young and have financial commitments or families. Developments consist of: - Sponsorship of training costs by the Training and Enterprise Councils (TECs). From 1988, all employers approaching TECs have been informed that the only form of assistance for training which companies should expect to receive is help towards the costs of providing young people with training and work experience. In the early 1990s, TECs were reported to have sponsored training for about 40 percent of youth in YTS and employment training, making earnings from the wages and salaries of trainees ineligible regionally. However, employer knowledge and agreement to this funding was not universal, and a number chose to top up trainee wages or reallocate state funding to compensate for restrictions in wage costs. A policy was therefore pursued to try and expand private funding of training back to pre-1986 levels. This has proved hardly sustainable due to increasing employer costs and the economic climate, leading to poor motivations to invest in training. Since 2000, the government has aimed to increase its own funding of training. - Training credits, with the launch of Modern Apprenticeships, the government introduced a system of training credits which could be given to employers for them to purchase training from an approved list compiled by Training Partnerships and Sector Skills Councils. This system was tried and tested, however, never a fully operational success, and is set to be phased out ending in 2006.

2.4 Gender and Diversity Imbalance

Statistics produced by Fraser of Allander Institute for the Scottish Union Learning suggest that the number of women starting an apprenticeship has declined by 7% in the four years to 2015. Modern Apprenticeships are a key route into employment for school and college leavers and are a cost-effective way for employers to train their workforce. These figures are disappointing when it is acknowledged that there are still many sectors where female employees are underrepresented, such as engineering, and a lack of gender diversity is apparent when comparing different apprenticeship frameworks. For example, the number of female starts on the Construction Specialist (SCQF level 5) apprenticeship is approximately 1 in 60 of the total starts, while females make up a third of the Business and Administration framework. These statistics are mainly reflective of 'sector segregation', a process where occupational work roles become sex-typed as a result of past and present recruitment patterns by employers. A degree of sector segregation can be considered healthy for the labour market, but it is detrimental to progress when it occurs due to discriminatory factors, and that is the assumption when investigating apprenticeships. It is essential that the Scottish Government continues to engage with employer and employee representatives on gender and apprenticeships, and the introduction of the UK Government's Gender Imbalance Fund aimed at promoting gender equality in Modern Apprenticeships is a good example of a targeted policy.

3. Innovations in Apprenticeship Programs

3.1 Modernizing Apprenticeship Frameworks

The policy of the government in modernizing apprenticeship frameworks began with increased funding for apprenticeships. The Learning and Skills Act of 2000 indicated the shifting political climate. The government offered Modern Apprenticeships which incorporated some of the elements of the traditional system, such as time spent off-the-job and recognised frameworks (Hopkins and Keep, 2008).

Modern Apprenticeships are offered in a range of occupations and sectors from agriculture to textiles, and are available to young people aged 16-24. They were designed to provide an accessible progression route for young people, and the new frameworks were intended to offer a high quality route for both employees and employers to develop the skills necessary for the sector. The Modern Apprenticeship frameworks are based on National Occupational Standards, and during the apprenticeship the candidate is assessed on these standards. (SEMTA, 2008). National Occupational Standards are specific to each sector and define the skills and knowledge that someone working in that sector should have. These were developed as a result of employers in each sector feeling that training was not providing employees with the necessary skills to be competent in their job. In developing the frameworks it was hoped that the structured qualifications would offer a clear progression route and raise the level of skill and employability of the working population. However, following a review in 2004 it was identified that too much freedom for interpretation was given to these frameworks and many were not offering a pathway to higher level skills. The Leitch Review found that some frameworks were of low quality and did not significantly increase skill to the individual or employer (Stoney and Wigan, 2009)

3.2 Collaboration with Industries and Employers

The rapid progress of technology in today’s world has led to a situation where in almost all sectors of the industry finding enough skilled personnel has become a serious problem. UK, an industrially developed nation is no exception to this. One of the key drivers of reforming apprenticeships is the recognition that employers matter. This growing concern of the employers in industry has led to a situation where direct government funding for apprenticeships has doubled and large numbers of firms are in partnership with training providers in order to obtain the skilled workforce of the future. For example, the collaboration of Network Rail with further education colleges to train their future maintenance technicians, which is a response to the lack of skilled workers in that field. Generally, the involvement of large employers in many sectors in designing the apprenticeship frameworks ensures that the training meets the needs of employers and apprentices are more likely to get jobs. Simulation exercises by BMW and Rolls Royce to find potential apprentices with the right skills have led to these firms being permitted to identify and directly recruit to other employers' apprentices. Modern apprenticeships work to ensure the upskilling of the existing workforce and train the next generation. Employers can take full advantage of these apprenticeship schemes. Recent reforms introduced by the coalition government ensure that full funding is available in the public sector and the contribution required by private sector employers has been substantially reduced. With the introduction of higher apprenticeships, it is possible to train managerial level staff. This has been greatly welcomed by employers and can be identified as a significant success during the apprenticeship journey. The training given is that of a recognized qualification and as such is flexible learning for employees. In these tough economic times, the position of apprentices in the workplace has been fairly safe with at most an 8% apprentice redundancy rate. This contrasts with other young people of the same age in the UK, so it is evident that apprenticeships are able to provide a right step on the career ladder in partnership with the right training.

4. Future Outlook and Recommendations

4.1 Promoting Apprenticeships as a Viable Career Pathway

As indicated by Fuller and Unwin, numerous youngsters and their parents don't perceive apprenticeships as a choice, with the majority regarding them as low status and cheap for low performing students. In any case, the reality of the situation is that apprenticeships can be a really feasible choice for even the maximum achieving young people. The decision Review, distributed by iCeGS, states that: the government will find a way to give more prominent help to talented and skilled individuals, especially youngsters, who might not have seen as additionally improving their professions through work environment learning and apprenticeship. On the off chance that apprenticeships are seen as a feasible choice for the most capable youngsters, this could have an immense effect to the take up of apprenticeship places and in this way raise the general nature of apprenticeships in the UK. Talented and gifted youngsters may come from non-customary understudy foundations, and some are not completely ready for advanced education at 16. Enhancing the access and quality of data exhortation and direction for those youngsters about the choices among post-16 learning, specifically to higher esteem apprenticeship ways is currently a need.

4.2 Strengthening Partnerships between Education and Industry

Creating the conditions for lasting reform in the relations between schools and industry is an extremely challenging task and there are no easy shortcuts. In keeping with the complexity of the issue, the ways forward are multi-dimensional and involve a comprehensive range of policies and initiatives.

First and foremost, partnerships between education and industry must become a central element in the apprenticeship reform programme. This may seem obvious, but in the past, the spotty and often ineffectual attempts to create effective linkages between the two sectors have been a weak point in the apprenticeship story. This time there must be no mistake: employers' needs are to be placed squarely at the centre of policy and practice in the design and delivery of apprenticeships. And since employers' needs are diverse, ranging from those of small and medium enterprises for direct control of apprentice training to those of the larger firms more interested in a supply of young people with transferable skills and know-how, a variety of mechanisms will be required to match training to different employer requirements.

One important part of this strategy lies in reducing the substantial gap in understanding and expectations between employers, young people and their families, and providers of education and training. The history of modern youth training contains numerous cases of soul-searching for young people being considered deficient or disaffected for failing to take up the training opportunities on offer when, in fact, the training has failed to connect with the real needs and opportunities available to the young people. Similarly, employers have become disillusioned with the motivational and basic skills of young recruits, especially in comparison with the school examination results which constitute the main objective indicator of educational attainment. These perceptions frequently rest on unrealistic expectations, and breaking through these impasses requires mechanisms for structured dialogue and interaction between the employers and the providers. The recent experiments in sectoral skills councils and the national employer training initiatives have been steps in the right direction, but they have not penetrated to the core of the training system. Proactive development of sectoral alliances between employer associations, unions, professional bodies, and education and training providers offer a vehicle to move things further, but it is the creation of specific projects and partnerships in particular localities or regions which offers the best prospects for changing behaviours and attitudes. In the case of apprenticeship, these might take the form of joint ventures between industry group training foundations and provider organizations to develop new training packages, or coordinated action by groups of employers to give substantial numbers of young people work experience and taster courses. These initiatives will need sustained support and a conducive policy environment to bear fruit, but a critical mass of participation should in time lead to genuine culture change in the relations between the two sectors.

4.3 Addressing Socioeconomic and Equality Issues

Apprenticeships have not always been accessible to people from socioeconomically disadvantaged backgrounds or people with disabilities. In the past, there was a lot of bias and discrimination towards people who were deemed as socially different from the 'norm'. From the 16th to the 19th centuries, only a small percentage of the population took part in apprenticeships, where the only option for the lower classes was to become a parish apprentice. This meant that children were sent from their families to work for a master to learn a trade until the age of 21 for boys, or 18 for girls. This deprived children of an education and reduced their chances of becoming skilled workers; instead, they remained a source of cheap labor.

Attempts to improve the status of apprenticeship in the early modern period were led by a number of masters and company officials who were concerned about the quality of their future labor supply. During the 17th and 18th centuries, several acted to raise the age of entry into craft training and to enforce restrictions on the ability of untrained workers to set themselves up in business. Later in the 18th century, some manufacturing employers were influential in securing public funding for the training of pauper children in the workhouse system through the parish apprenticeship. Industries receiving state aid, such as the cotton industry, spent money on the training of pauper children and built a niche in the labor market for them as indentured workers. This could be seen as the beginnings of state-sponsored youth training in England, which was revisited in various forms in the 20th century.